<div dir="ltr"><span id="gmail-docs-internal-guid-c99c2316-7fff-d55f-a89a-5fc65a93471b"><font face="georgia, serif"><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:14pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Week 7: Guardianship, Land Allotments, and the Dawes Act </span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Part 1: Guardianship, Land Allotments, and the Nipmuc Nation</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">This week, we continue our exploration of the long, violent history of Native land theft and displacement in New England and across North America. Following last week's focus on Tribal Sovereignty, we want to learn more about some of the specific mechanisms of theft that colonizers have employed against Native Nations. In the previous installment about King Philip's War, we learned about the history of "praying towns," such as Webquasset (Woodstock, CT), where colonists converted Native people to English customs and Christianity. Following the war, colonizers turned to other methods of control and assimilation, and introduced "guardianship" as a way to regulate how Indigenous people and communities could interact with the land. </span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">As described in </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">: "Toward the end of the 18th century, English settlers developed a guardianship system ostensibly to prevent the abuse of Native Americans during land negotiations, but in reality only furthering the fraud, abuse, and corruption. Guardians were paid by the tribes, but often the tribes' only sources of income were from sales of land or resources." Many of the guardians – colonists claiming to represent the interests of a tribe or individual – siphoned off funds for personal use, and Indigenous people were then forced to sell land to pay debts, taxes, and more. This only added to the immense land loss they had already experienced.</span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">This article highlights a panel discussion at Suffolk University that featured tribal leaders from the Nipmuc Nation and Hassanamisco Band of Nipmuc Indians, the Chappaquiddick Wampanoag Tribe, and the Herring Pond Wampanoag Tribe. This panel convened to discuss the legal and social mechanisms of state-sanctioned land theft that left the Indigenous population landless within a century after King Philip's War. The discussion points to colonial concepts of land tenure, the abuses of guardianship policies, and a foreign tax system that all interplayed to dispossess land from Native people. Despite the loss of land that broke apart their communities and the abuses of power that forced them to sell acreage, tribes in the region maintain a cultural connection to their ancestral lands and continue to rebuild their communities. Of the Nipmuc Nation, the </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Cultural Survival Quarterly</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"> article states: "Today, only three acres remain of the original Hassanamesit reservation in Grafton. Although no Nipmuc people live on their traditional lands, they continue to congregate for cultural events that serve as an important connection to their ancestors."</span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Sanctioned Theft: Tribal Land Loss in Massachusetts - by CS Staff - Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine, June 2014</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><a href="https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/sanctioned-theft-tribal-land-loss-massachusetts" style="text-decoration-line:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/sanctioned-theft-tribal-land-loss-massachusetts</span></a></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Guardians were often employed when the colonizers divided land into individual allotments, privatizing land that was formerly shared by Native bands, tribes, and nations. Land was divided into allotments on a large scale with the passage of the Dawes Act in 1887, but colonial, state, and federal governments also employed the allotment system much earlier. In her 2012 blog post "Hassanimisco Indians," Cheryll Toney Holley, chief of the Nipmuc Nation and Hassanamisco Band of Nipmuc Indians, writes that "Native people throughout Massachusetts could not sell their land or spend even the interest on their money without asking their guardians to petition the legislature until 1869." She traces the history of one land allotment (the Muckamaug Allotment) beginning in 1728, when the Hassanamesit praying town was divided. Of the 8,000 total acres at Hassanamesit, only 1,200 were distributed to 7 Nipmuc families. Her 2015 post, "Unraveling Six Generations of Nipmuc Sarahs," focuses on the same allotment and follows the lineage of Nipmuc women who passed this land down through generations.</span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">"Hassanamisco Indians" and "Unraveling Six Generations of Nipmuc Sarahs," For All My Relations, Cheryll Toney Holley</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><a href="http://forallmyrelations.blogspot.com/2012/08/hassanamisco-indians.html" style="text-decoration-line:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">http://forallmyrelations.blogspot.com/2012/08/hassanamisco-indians.html</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="text-decoration-line:underline;font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"><a href="http://forallmyrelations.blogspot.com/2014/04/unraveling-six-generations-of-nipmuc.html" style="text-decoration-line:none">http://forallmyrelations.blogspot.com/2014/04/unraveling-six-generations-of-nipmuc.html</a></span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">For further reading, we recommend the dissertation of Dr. Rae Gould, a member of the Nipmuc Nation and Associate Director of the Native American and Indigenous Studies Initiative at Brown University. Dr. Gould's doctoral research traces how a 3-acre remnant of an allotment of land to Nipmuc Moses Printer in 1727 eventually became the present day Hassanamisco Reservation, and highlights the role of women leaders in protecting and preserving this land. Her work follows the transformation of the Nipmuc settlement of Hassanamesit, "the place of small stones", to the 17th century Hassanamesit praying village, to eventually become present day Grafton, Massachusetts, where the reservation serves as a symbol of resilience and "of the continued presence of the Nipmuc people in southern New England." </span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Contested Places: The history and meaning of Hassanamisco - Dr. Rae Gould </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47869343_Contested_places_The_history_and_meaning_of_Hassanamisco#read" style="text-decoration-line:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47869343_Contested_places_The_history_and_meaning_of_Hassanamisco#read</span></a></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Part 2: The General Allotment Act of 1887 (Dawes Act)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Over the past few weeks, we have explored the many mechanisms by which land was violently stolen and systematically dispossessed from Native people by colonizers, and how this land loss is connected to the erasure of Native people from the l</span><span style="background-color:rgb(255,255,255)"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">andscape. </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">One of the most devastating policies to Indigenous land ownership as colonizers expanded westward was the General Allotment Act of 1887 </span></span><span style="font-family:Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif">—</span><span style="font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"> often referred to as the Dawes Act, after the Senator and Yale alum, Henry Laurens Dawes, a major proponent of the legislation — which resulted in the loss of ownership of over 90 million acres of Native landholdings to colonial settlers. </span><span style="font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">The policy was designed to partition communal Indigenous lands into individual parcels of 40, 80, or 160 acres. The most productive lands from reservations were identified as "surplus to Indian needs" and sold to colonizers to exploit for natural resources. Under the allotment policies, colonial settlers could purchase and own la</span><span style="background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">nd outright, but Natives that were deemed "incompetent" by the federal government had to wait 25 years to gain the legal title and rights to sell the land. In addition to the land grab, the act aimed to "civilize" and assimilate Indigenous people in order to dissolve their connections to their traditional land, culture, and identity. Today, tribes continue to address the fractionated ownership and management of land from the original allottees.</span></p></font><font face="georgia, serif"><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Episode 5 </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">of This Land podcast</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"> </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">explores how 90 million acres of land were lost to "bureaucracy and corruption," </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">and the repercussions that continue to be seen today. </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">In this </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">conversation, host Rebecca Nagle and John Ross, David Cornsilk, Marilyn Vann, Elena Kagan, and Sheila Bird reframe the common story "</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">about how tribes lost land with arrows and guns</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">." Depending on who tells the story, they say, The Dawes Act was either "a story of good intentions" to safeguard Native land ownership or "or one of outright theft."</span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">The Land Grab - This Land Podcast hosted by Rebecca Nagle</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><a href="https://crooked.com/podcast/this-land-episode-5-the-land-grab/" style="text-decoration-line:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">https://crooked.com/podcast/this-land-episode-5-the-land-grab/</span></a></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">The first article in a three-part series by Gale Courey Toensing in </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Indian Country Today</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"> describes the Dawes Act for what it was - legalized warfare - and a "</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">land-grab on a massive, almost unimaginable scale</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">." This article describes how the Dawes Act gave the President authority to "dissolve" reservations and subsequently allot the land to individual Native people, based on a western understanding of gender and family structures (for example, married women couldn't receive allotments). Additionally, "The allotments would be held in 'trust' by the federal government for 25 years, and then turned over to the individual allotment holder, who would hold the title free and clear, but would now have to pay taxes on the land." Many could not afford those taxes and therefore lost the land. Toensing articulates the devastating impact of this policy on Indigenous communities across the continent:</span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-left:36pt;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">"</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">The Dawes Act was one of the most effective implementations of the colonial and imperialist strategy against Indigenous Peoples of divide-and-conquer — a strategy that combines political, military and economic tactics to gain power over another power by breaking it up into individual units that are powerless to resist domination. It was also an act of lawfare — a relatively new term for an old phenomenon: warfare by legal means." </span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">The Dawes Act Started the U.S. Land-Grab of Native Territory by Gale Courey Toensing in Indian Country Today (Part 1)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><a href="https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/the-dawes-act-started-the-u-s-land-grab-of-native-territory-hv3s4QgVpkCrSHO77YvZjg" style="text-decoration-line:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/the-dawes-act-started-the-u-s-land-grab-of-native-territory-hv3s4QgVpkCrSHO77YvZjg</span></a></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">For additional reading, we recommend the other articles in the series. Part 3 explores the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act — which gave the Secretary of the Interior authority to "restore and acquire lands for Indian Nations" — and the 2009 </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Carcieri</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"> ruling, which </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Mashpee Wampanoag Chairman Cedric Cromwell calls "the modern-day Dawes Act."</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"> In </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Carcieri v. Salazar</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">, the Supreme Court ruled that "the Secretary of the Interior does not have the authority to take land into trust for tribes that were not 'now under federal jurisdiction' when the IRA was enacted" in 1934. </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">The Mashpee Wampanoag were some of the first to experience Dawes'</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"> theory</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"> of private property ownership, when </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">state legislation in 1842 divided </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Mashpee Wampanoag land into 60-acre allotments. </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">The Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe only recently received federal recognition in 2007, and their once-vast lands throughout New England now comprise just over 300 acres of reservation land in the Massachusetts towns of Mashpee and Taunton. The Tribe is now in the midst of a battle to retain their lands, following a 2018 decision by the Department of the Interior that because the Tribe was not federally recognized in 1934, it does not qualify for land-in-trust status under </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Carcieri</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">. On March 27, 2020, the Department ordered the Mashpee Wampanoag Reservation to be disbanded and the land taken out of trust, an action that the U.S. District Court in Washington, D.C. struck down in June. Interior is now appealing that ruling. The Mashpee Wampanoag Reservation Reaffirmation Act/HR312, which would prevent disestablishment of the reservation, was passed by the U.S. House of Representatives in May (it hasn't yet been taken up by the Senate).</span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">In the </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Indian Country Today</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"> piece (written before the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe's current legal battle began), Cromwell articulates the importance of land to Tribes, and articulates how land is fundamental to sovereignty:  </span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-left:36pt;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">"We have always been, and today continue to be, land based cultures — communities inextricably connected to the soil, water, and air around us, to the plants and animals that ensure our survival, and to the places we call home. In our view, our lands hold much more than mere economic value but rather have great cultural, religious, and—in the modern era, especially—political significance. Our lands are where we live, where we gather together, and where we exercise our inherent sovereign rights as pre-Constitutional peoples."</span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">The Dawes Act Started the U.S. Land-Grab of Native Territory by Gale Courey Toensing in Indian Country Today (Part 3)</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><a href="https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/part-3-the-dawes-act-started-the-u-s-land-grab-of-indian-territory-bKhupD7gEUmwaRcriA_7Mw" style="text-decoration-line:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/part-3-the-dawes-act-started-the-u-s-land-grab-of-indian-territory-bKhupD7gEUmwaRcriA_7Mw</span></a></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">To learn more about the ongoing legal battle surrounding Mashpee Wampanoag lands and tribal sovereignty:</span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe: #StandWithMashpee</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><a href="https://mashpeewampanoagtribe-nsn.gov/standwithmashpee" style="text-decoration-line:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">https://mashpeewampanoagtribe-nsn.gov/standwithmashpee</span></a></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><a href="https://mashpeewampanoagtribe-nsn.gov/news/2020/6/5/message-from-chairman-cromwell-court-rules-in-favor-of-tribe" style="text-decoration-line:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">https://mashpeewampanoagtribe-nsn.gov/news/2020/6/5/message-from-chairman-cromwell-court-rules-in-favor-of-tribe</span></a><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"> and other news pieces on the Tribe's website</span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">"Secretary Of Interior Orders Mashpee Wampanoag Reservation 'Disestablished,' Tribe Says," WBUR, March 28, 2020</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><a href="https://www.wbur.org/news/2020/03/28/mashpee-wampanoag-reservation-secretary-interior-land-trust" style="text-decoration-line:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">https://www.wbur.org/news/2020/03/28/mashpee-wampanoag-reservation-secretary-interior-land-trust</span></a></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">"Interior Department appeals June ruling over Wampanoag land" by Beth Treffeisen for the </span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-style:italic;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Cape Cod Times</span><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">, August 1, 2020</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><a href="https://www.capecodtimes.com/news/20200801/interior-department-appeals-june-ruling-over-wampanoag-land" style="text-decoration-line:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">https://www.capecodtimes.com/news/20200801/interior-department-appeals-june-ruling-over-wampanoag-land</span></a></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">To learn more about organizations that are working to return land to Native ownership take a look at the work of The Indian Land Tenure Foundation.</span></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">The Indian Land Tenure Foundation</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><a href="https://iltf.org/" style="text-decoration-line:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;text-decoration-line:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">https://iltf.org/</span></a></p><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Questions</span></p><ol style="margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px"><li dir="ltr" style="list-style-type:decimal;font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre"><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">How do allotments continue to influence how land is managed today?</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" style="list-style-type:decimal;font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre"><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">For those who don't live on reservation land, are you aware of reservation land near you? How have you interacted with the land and people who live with it? Knowing more about violent land dispossession policies, how does this influence how you view and interact with Native land?</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" style="list-style-type:decimal;font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre"><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Were you already familiar with this history of land dispossession? What has been new to you in this history?</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" style="list-style-type:decimal;font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre"><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">As we have strived to cover some main events and methods of land dispossession since European contact to today, what other major events and methods have you learned about in New England or other areas that would help tell this story?</span></p></li><li dir="ltr" style="list-style-type:decimal;font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre"><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">What are other examples of land dispossession and marginalization you have noticed?</span></p></li></ol><br><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:700;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Acknowledgments</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Each week, we are in awe of the Native accounts and stories we are reading and listening to. We are thankful to the people and platforms we have explored this week for digging deep into the history of land dispossession - and their continued efforts to educate and advocate for returning land to Native ownership. We are exceptionally thankful for and privileged to read the words of  Cheryll Toney Holley, chief of the Nipmuc Nation and Hassanamisco Band of Nipmuc Indians, and Dr. Rae Gould, Nipmuc Nation member and associate director of the Native American and Indigenous Studies Initiative at Brown University, who have shared stories of the Nipmuc people that we have learned from and bettered our understanding. As a continued action from this learning, we encourage you to continue to follow and support the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe's fight to preserve their reservation land (#StandWithMashpee), as well as to learn about (and join in opposition to) other attacks on tribal sovereignty in your area. </span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"><br></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">--</span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-variant-numeric:normal;font-variant-east-asian:normal;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"><br></span></p><p dir="ltr" style="line-height:1.38;margin-top:0pt;margin-bottom:0pt"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;text-decoration:none;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Thanks so much for following along this week! Have thoughts, comments, or reflections you’d like to share? Are there resources you feel we should have included? We hope you’ll send an email our way: </span><a href="mailto:yale-forests-reading-group@mailman.yale.edu" style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(17,85,204);background-color:transparent;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;text-decoration:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">yale-forests-reading-group@mailman.yale.edu</span></a><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(0,0,0);background-color:transparent;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;text-decoration:none;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap"> or check us out on Instagram: </span><a href="https://www.instagram.com/yaleschoolforests/" style="text-decoration:none"><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rgb(17,85,204);background-color:transparent;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;text-decoration:underline;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">https://www.instagram.com/yaleschoolforests/</span></a><span style="font-size:11pt;color:rg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